The Manhattan Project Making the Atomic Bomb

The Manhattan Project was the Allied effort to develop the atomic bomb during World War II. Led by Maj. Gen. Leslie Groves and J. Robert Oppenheimer, it developed research facilities across the United States. The Project was successful and made the atomic bombs used at Hiroshima and Nagasaki. Background On August 2, 1939, President Franklin Roosevelt received the Einstein–Szilà ¡rd Letter, in which the famed scientists encouraged the United States to develop nuclear weapons lest Nazi Germany create them first. Spurred by this and other committee reports, Roosevelt authorized the National Defense Research Committee to explore nuclear research, and on June 28, 1941, signed Executive Order 8807 which created the Office of Scientific Research Development with Vannevar Bush as its director. To directly address the need for nuclear research, the NDRC formed the S-1 Uranium Committee under the guidance of Lyman Briggs. That summer, the S-1 Committee was visited by Australian physicist Marcus Oliphant, a member of the MAUD Committee. The British counterpart of S-1, the MAUD Committee was driving forward in an attempt to create an atomic bomb. As Britain was deeply involved in World War II, Oliphant sought to increase the speed of American research on nuclear matters. Responding, Roosevelt formed a Top Policy Group, consisting of himself, Vice President Henry Wallace, James Conant, Secretary of War Henry Stimson, and General George C. Marshall that October. Becoming the Manhattan Project The S-1 Committee held its first formal meeting on December 18, 1941, only days after the attack on Pearl Harbor. Pulling together many of the nations best scientists including Arthur Compton, Eger Murphree, Harold Urey, and Ernest Lawrence, the group decided to push forward exploring several techniques for extracting uranium-235 as well as different reactor designs. This work progressed at facilities across the country from Columbia University to University of California-Berkeley. Presenting their proposal to Bush and the Top Policy Group, it was approved and Roosevelt authorized funding in June 1942. As the committees research would require several large new facilities, it worked in conjunction with the US Army Corps of Engineers. Initially dubbed Development of Substitute Materials by the Corps of Engineers, the project was latter re-designated the Manhattan District on August 13. During the summer of 1942, the project was led by Colonel James Marshall. Through the summer, Marshall explored sites for facilities but was unable to secure the needed priority from the US Army. Frustrated by a lack of progress, Bush had Marshall replaced in September by newly-promoted Brigadier General Leslie Groves. The Project Moves Forward Taking charge, Groves oversaw the acquisition of sites at Oak Ridge, TN, Argonne, IL, Hanford, WA, and, at the suggestion of one of the projects leaders, Robert Oppenheimer, Los Alamos, NM. While work progressed on most of these sites, the facility at Argonne was delayed. As a result, a team working under Enrico Fermi constructed the first successful nuclear reactor at the University of Chicagos Stagg Field. On December 2, 1942, Fermi was able to create the first sustained artificial nuclear chain reaction. Drawing on resources from across the US and Canada, the facilities at Oak Ridge and Hanford focused on uranium enrichment and plutonium production. For the former, several methods were used including electromagnetic separation, gaseous diffusion, and thermal diffusion. As research and production moved forward under a cloak of secrecy, research on nuclear matters was shared with the British. Signing the Quebec Agreement in August 1943, the two nations agreed to collaborate on atomic matters. This led to several notable scientists including Niels Bohr, Otto Frisch, Klaus Fuchs, and Rudolf Peierls joining the project. Weapon Design As production ensued elsewhere, Oppenheimer and the team at Los Alamos worked on designing the atomic bomb. Early work focused gun-type designs which fired one piece of uranium into another to create a nuclear chain reaction. While this approach proved promising for uranium-based bombs, it was less so for those utilizing plutonium. As a result, the scientists at Los Alamos began developing an implosion design for a plutonium-based bomb as this material was relatively more plentiful. By July 1944, the bulk of the research was focused on the plutonium designs and the uranium gun-type bomb was less of a priority. The Trinity Test As the implosion-type device was more complex, Oppenheimer felt that a test of the weapon was needed before it could be moved into production. Though plutonium was relatively scarce at the time, Groves authorized the test and assigned planning for it to Kenneth Bainbridge in March 1944. Bainbridge pushed forward and selected the Alamogordo Bombing Range as the detonation site. Though he originally planned to use a containment vessel to recover the fissile material, Oppenheimer later elected to abandon it as plutonium had become more available. Dubbed the Trinity Test, a pre-test explosion was conducted on May 7, 1945. This was followed by the construction of a 100-ft. tower at the site. The implosion test device, nicknamed The Gadget, was hoisted to the top to simulate a bomb falling from an aircraft. At 5:30 AM on July 16, with all the key Manhattan Project members present, the device was successfully detonated with the energy equivalent of around 20 kilotons of TNT. Alerting President Harry S. Truman, then at the Potsdam Conference, the team began moving to build atomic bombs using the tests results. Little Boy Fat Man Though the implosion device was preferred, the first weapon to leave Los Alamos was a gun-type design, as the design was thought more reliable. Components were carried to Tinian aboard the heavy cruiser USS Indianapolis and arrived on July 26. With Japans refusal of calls to surrender, Truman authorized the bombs use against the city of Hiroshima. On August 6, Colonel Paul Tibbets departed Tinian with the bomb, dubbed Little Boy, aboard the B-29 Superfortress Enola Gay. Released over the city at 8:15 AM, Little Boy fell for fifty-seven seconds, before detonating at the predetermined height of 1,900 feet with a blast equivalent to about 13-15 kilotons of TNT. Creating an area of complete devastation approximately two miles in diameter, the bomb, with its resulting shock wave and fire storm, effectively destroyed around 4.7 square miles of the city, killing 70,000-80,000 and injuring another 70,000. Its use was quickly followed three days later when Fat Man, an implosion plutonium bomb, fell on Nagasaki. Generating a blast equivalent of 21 kilotons of TNT, it killed 35,000 and wounded 60,000. With the use of the two bombs, Japan quickly sued for peace. Aftermath Costing nearly $2 billion and employing approximately 130,000 people, the Manhattan Project was one of the US largest endeavors during World War II. Its success ushered in the nuclear age, which saw nuclear power harnessed for both military and peaceful purposes. Work on nuclear weapons continued under the Manhattan Projects jurisdiction and saw further testing in 1946 at Bikini Atoll. Control of nuclear research passed to the United States Atomic Energy Commission on January 1, 1947, following the passage of the Atomic Energy Act of 1946. Though a highly secret program, the Manhattan Project was penetrated by Soviet spies, including Fuchs, during the war. As a result of his work, and that of others such as Julius and Ethel Rosenberg, the US atomic hegemony ended in 1949 when the Soviets detonated their first nuclear weapon. Selected Sources The Atomic Archive: The Manhattan ProjectNuclear Weapon Archive: The Manhattan Project

The Effect Of Offline Near Wins On Predictions Of A Future...

Abstract This study investigated the effect an offline-near win or an offline loss had on participants’ predictions of a future win. An experimental within-groups design was used. The independent variable was whether or not the participant had the offline-near win or the offline loss condition, and the dependent variable was how the participant rated the likeliness of a future win following either of these conditions. Participants were 119 undergraduate students taking a 100-level psychology paper. The study found that there was no significant difference between the mean ratings for the offline-near win or offline loss conditions. These findings suggest that offline-near wins are not a reliable predictor of whether the gambler believes they are going to win based on the previous outcome. The Influence of Offline-Near Wins on Predictions about Future Gambling Outcomes A variety of psychology-based research into gambling has been conducted with the intent of understanding some of the factors that influence persistent gambling. Superstitious behaviour is closely linked to the study of gambling, and is defined by Joukhador, Blaszczynski and Maccallum (2004) as potentially developing when people are presented with non-contingent behaviours. For the purposes of this study, definitions of some key terms will be as follows. A win is defined as being the outcome of all five symbols on the line that has been chosen by the participant. An offline-near win is where the line aboveShow MoreRelatedLiterature Review of Strategic Management8039 Words   |  33 Pagesmarketplace which seems to get more and more complex. True strategy is about making complex bets and following up with hard choices (Martin, 2014). 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Constantine the Great Essay Example For Students

Constantine the Great Essay Category:BiographiesPaper Title:Constantine the GreatText:Constantine the Great (about AD274-337), Roman emperor (306-37), thefirst Roman ruler to be converted to Christianity. He was the founder ofConstantinople(present-day Istanbul), which remained the capital of the Eastern Roman(Byzantine)Empire until 1453. Constantine the Great was born Flavius Valerius Constantinus at Nis, inwhat is now Serbia, son of the commander Constantius Chlorus (laterConstantius I)and Helena (later Saint Helena), a camp follower. Constantius becameco-emperor in305. Constantine, who had shown military talent in the East, joined hisfather inBritain in 306. He was popular with the troops, who proclaimed him emperorwhenConstantius died later the same year. Over the next two decades, however,Constantine had to fight his rivals for the throne, and he did not finallyestablishhimself as sole ruler until 324. Following the example of his father and earlier 3rd-century emperors,Constantine in his early life was a solar henotheist, believing that theRoman sun god,Sol, was the visible manifestation of an invisible Highest God,who was the principlebehind the universe. This god was thought to be the companion of the Romanemperor. Constantines adherence to this faith is evident from his claim ofhaving hada vision of the sun god in 310 while in a grove of Apollo in Gaul. In 312, onthe eve ofa battle against Maxentius, his rival in Italy, Constantine is reported tohave dreamedthat Christ appeared to him and told him to inscribe the first two letters ofhis nameon the shields of his troops. The next day he is said to have seen a crosssuperimposed on the sun and the words in this sign you will be thevictor. Constantine then defeated Maxentius at the Battle of the Milvian Bridge, nearRome. The Senate hailed the victor as savior of the Roman people. Thus,Constantine, whohad been a pagan solar worshiper, now looked upon the Christian deity as abringer ofvictory. Persecution of the Christians was ended, and Constantinesco-emperor,Licinius, joined him in issuing the Edict of Milan (313), which mandatedtoleration ofChristians in the Roman Empire. As guardian of Constantines favoredreligion, thechurch was then given legal rights and large financial donations. A struggle for power soon began between Licinius and Constantine,from which Constantine emerged in 324 as a victorious Christian champion. Nowemperor of both East and West, he began to implement important administrativereforms. The army was reorganized, and the separation of civil and militaryauthority,begun by his predecessor, Diocletian, was completed. The central governmentwasrun by Constantine and his council, known as the sacrum consistorium. TheSenatewas given back the powers that it had lost in the 3rd century, and new goldcoinswere issued, which remained the standard of exchange until the end of theByzantineEmpire. Constantine intervened in ecclesiastical affairs to achieve unity; hepresided over the first ecumenical council of the church at Nicaea in 325. Healsobegan the building of Constantinople in 326 on the site of ancient GreekByzantium. The city was completed in 330 (later expanded), given Roman institutions, andbeautified by ancient Greek works of art. In addition, Constantine builtchurches inthe Holy Land, where his mother (also a Christian) supposedly found the TrueCrosson which Jesus was crucified. The emperor was baptized shortly before hisdeath, onMay 22, 337. Constantine the Great unified a tottering empire, reorganized theRoman state, and set the stage for the final victory of Christianity at theend of the4th century. Many modern scholars accept the sincerity of his religiousconviction. Hisconversion was a gradual process; at first he probably associated Christ withthevictorious sun god. By the time of the Council of Nicaea (325), however, hewascompletely Christian, but still tolerated paganism among his subjects. .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .postImageUrl , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:hover , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:visited , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:active { border:0!important; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:active , .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238 .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .u8d2e9d2f9b3ba9976d06dcb1fb042238:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: Chapter 12- Pg. 465-474 EssayAlthoughcriticized by his enemies as a proponent of a crude and false religion,Constantine theGreat strengthened the Roman Empire and ensured its survival in the East. Asthe firstemperor to rule in the name of Christ, he was a major figure in thefoundation ofmedieval Christian Europe. Biographies

The Defeat of Napoleon in Russia Essay Example For Students

The Defeat of Napoleon in Russia Essay The Campaign of 1812 should have been a another crusade for Napoleon, but he now faced 2 new policies that he had never faced before, the severe Russian winter and the notorious scorched-earth policy. On June 23, 1812 Napoleons Grande Armee, over 500,000 men strong, poured over the Russian border. An equal amount of Russian forces awaited them. The result of the campaign was a surprise. Two authors, General carl von Clausewitz and Brett James, show similarities in reasons why Napoleon had lost this campaign to Russia. Napoleon believed that after a few quick victorious battles, he could convince Alexander to return to the Continental System. He also decided that if he occupied Moscow, the Russian government would crumple and ask for peace. A single blow delivered at the heart of the Russian Empire, at Moscow the Great, at Moscow the Holy, will ineztly put this whole blind, apathetic mass at my mercy. pg 6, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia. We will write a custom essay on The Defeat of Napoleon in Russia specifically for you for only $16.38 $13.9/page Order now This was his belief he expressed in March 1812. However, when Napoleon eventually took over Moscow, the Tsar still did not surrender. Napoleon, sent a message to the Tsar, demanding a immediate surrender. However, the Tsar could not surrender because if he did, he would be assassinated by the nobles. Clausewitz replies by saying, Napoleon was unable to grasp the fact that Alexander would not, could not negotiate. The Tsar knew well that he would be disposed and assassinated if he tried so. pg 256, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia. General Clausewitz said, Napoleon believed if he defeated the Russian Army and occupied Moscow, the Russian leadership will fall apart and the government would call for peace. pg 253, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia Brett James also agreed that Napoleons occupation had no result. The occupation of Napoleon in Moscow did not have a effect on the government. pg 13, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia With his battle plan set, Napoleon prepared his troops for the attack on Russia. But, Napoleon did not consider the fierce Russian winter which awaited him. According to Ludwig Wilhelm Gottlob Schlosser, a onlooker, he described the army by saying, The French, down to the lowliest drummer were very fastidious. These poor French devils were not satisfied with less than soup, meat and vegetables, roast, and salad for their midday meal, and there was no sign of their famous frugality. They were completely devoid of the coming winter. pg 13, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia Napoleon was even warned by General Rapp about the extremities of the oncoming winter in Russia. The natives say we shall have a severe winter, Napoleon retorted scornfully, Bah! You and your natives! We shall see how fine it is. pg 147, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia Napoleon should have heeded Rapps words. As the Grand Armee marched toward Moscow, many horses and men were lost in the freezing snow, and for those who remained, their morale and effectiveness was at the nadir. General Clausewitz states his point by saying, With more precaution and better regulations as to subsistence, with more careful consideration of his marches, which would have prevented the unnecessary and enormous accumulation of masses on one and the same road, he would have preserved his army in a more effective condition. pg 255, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia Brett James also shared the same opinion, Napoleon appeared to have made no effort to discover the facts in Russia, or prepare his troops for it. pg 140, 1812 Napoleons D efeat in Russia. As Napoleon and his army was making their way to Moscow, they encountered typhus, colds, and dysentery. Even the mighty Napoleon had caught a mild case of the flu. However, his soldiers had received the brunt of the attack. Captain Thomas- Joesph Aubry relives this ordeal, After this the typhus made appalling inroads in our ranks. We were fourty-three officers in our ward. All of them died, one after the other, and delirious from this dreadful disease, most of them singing, some in Latin, others in German, others again in Italian and singing psalms, canticles, or the mass. pg 210, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia General Clausewitz wrote, The bad water and the air-borne insects caused dysentery, typhus, and diarrhea. pg 136, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia Brett James also wrote, Bad water, bad air, and bad sanitation all contributed to the vile diseases. pg 213 1812, Napoleons defeat in Russia. .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .postImageUrl , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .centered-text-area { min-height: 80px; position: relative; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:hover , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:visited , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:active { border:0!important; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .clearfix:after { content: ""; display: table; clear: both; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 { display: block; transition: background-color 250ms; webkit-transition: background-color 250ms; width: 100%; opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #95A5A6; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:active , .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:hover { opacity: 1; transition: opacity 250ms; webkit-transition: opacity 250ms; background-color: #2C3E50; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .centered-text-area { width: 100%; position: relative ; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .ctaText { border-bottom: 0 solid #fff; color: #2980B9; font-size: 16px; font-weight: bold; margin: 0; padding: 0; text-decoration: underline; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .postTitle { color: #FFFFFF; font-size: 16px; font-weight: 600; margin: 0; padding: 0; width: 100%; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .ctaButton { background-color: #7F8C8D!important; color: #2980B9; border: none; border-radius: 3px; box-shadow: none; font-size: 14px; font-weight: bold; line-height: 26px; moz-border-radius: 3px; text-align: center; text-decoration: none; text-shadow: none; width: 80px; min-height: 80px; background: url(https://artscolumbia.org/wp-content/plugins/intelly-related-posts/assets/images/simple-arrow.png)no-repeat; position: absolute; right: 0; top: 0; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:hover .ctaButton { background-color: #34495E!important; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .centered-text { display: table; height: 80px; padding-left : 18px; top: 0; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3 .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3-content { display: table-cell; margin: 0; padding: 0; padding-right: 108px; position: relative; vertical-align: middle; width: 100%; } .uaf3c5f7f80fc6c15dd2b66e3a6d547b3:after { content: ""; display: block; clear: both; } READ: The Picture Of Dorian Grey EssayNapoleon had lost about 80,000 men altogether from diseases alone. But there were some remedies for the sick, doctors provided gruel for the dysentery and warm soup for the colds. Napoleon could have lowered the casualties if he had brought more doctors and more supplies. When Napoleon had finally reached Moscow, he discovered it deserted. Two days later, a great fire broke out in Moscow, temporarily forcing Napoleon and some of his troops out of Moscow. If Napoleon had reached Moscow with at 300,000 men instead of 90,000, he could have continued his campaign and defeat the weakened Russian army. The Emperor could have reached Moscow with at least 300,000 men if he had taken better care of his troops and had not fought every battle that he came across. Brett James shows that Napoleon regarded his army as mere numbers and did not contemplate that they would be affected by hunger and fatigue. He would not have lost a 100,000 men if he had not chosen on every occasion to take the bull by the horns. pg 86, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia Moscow was a good weeks march away, but already the army was already disintegrating through sheer hunger. pg 147, 1812 Napoleons Defeat in Russia General Clausewitz also relates with Brett by declaring, He reached Moscow with 90,000 men, he should have reached it with 300,000. This would have happened if he treated his army with more care and forbearance. pg 255, The Campaign of 1812 in Russia If Napoleon only had at least 300,000 men, he could have waited for supplies with the comfort of knowing that he was safe. Instead, Napoleon retreated and allowed his army to slowly wither under t he attack of the Russian guerrillas. Therefore I have shown some reasons why Napoleon had lost the Campaign of 1812 to Russia. However, Napoleon did not lose the war out of military errors but of a simple miscalculation a miscalculation that was made by Hitler a century later. Napoleon believed that if he occupied Moscow, the Russian government would collapse and he would rule Europe with little opposition. But as history reveals, this tactic does not work and Napoleon is defeated, paving the way for other nations to deny Napoleons lust for power.